Dr Salim Niaz

The General Ayub Khan era (1958-1969) was a period of significant transformation and modernization in Pakistan, but also of controversy and criticism.  Socially, Ayub Khan’s regime promoted a secular and progressive vision of society, which was influenced by his own Western education and exposure. He encouraged women’s education and participation in public life. He also initiated several social welfare programs, such as the Family Planning Association, the Pakistan Academy of Sciences, and the Pakistan Medical Research Council. However, his social policies also faced opposition from religious and conservative groups, who accused him of undermining the Islamic identity and values of Pakistan. He also failed to address the grievances and aspirations of the ethnic minorities, especially the Bengalis in East Pakistan, who felt marginalized and discriminated against by the dominant Punjabi elite.

Politically, Ayub Khan’s regime was marked by authoritarianism and centralization of power. He abolished the parliamentary system and the political parties, and replaced them with a presidential system and a single-party system, the Convention Muslim League. He introduced the system of “basic democracies”, which consisted of a network of local self-governing bodies, but also served as a means of legitimizing his rule through controlled elections and referendums. He suppressed the opposition and the dissent, and curtailed the freedom of press and expression. He also faced several challenges to his authority, such as the 1962 Rawalpindi conspiracy, the 1965 war with India, and the 1968-69 mass protests led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.

Culturally, Ayub Khan’s regime fostered a culture of modernity and development, which was reflected in the fields of art, literature, music, cinema, and sports. He patronized the cultural institutions and activities, such as the National Arts Council, the National Book Foundation, the Pakistan Television Corporation, and the Pakistan Film Development Corporation. He also promoted the cultural exchange and cooperation with other countries, especially the Muslim and the non-aligned countries. He hosted the first Islamic Summit Conference in 1969, and the first Asian Games in 1958. However, his cultural policies also faced criticism from some quarters, who accused him of neglecting the indigenous and diverse cultural heritage of Pakistan, and of imposing a uniform and artificial national culture.

Administratively, Ayub Khan’s regime reformed and reorganized the administrative system of Pakistan, with the aim of improving the efficiency and the accountability of the bureaucracy. He also delegated some of the administrative powers and functions to the provincial and the local governments, through the One Unit scheme and the Basic Democracies scheme. However, his administrative reforms also faced some problems and limitations, such as the politicization and the corruption of the bureaucracy, the lack of coordination and communication among the different levels and departments of the government, and the resistance and the resentment from the provincial and the local officials.

Democratically, Ayub Khan’s regime was undemocratic and unconstitutional in its origin and nature. He came into power through a military coup, which overthrew the elected government of Prime Minister Feroze Khan Noon, and abrogated the 1956 constitution. He imposed martial law, and suspended the fundamental rights and the rule of law. He drafted a new constitution in 1962, which concentrated the executive, legislative, and judicial powers in his own hands, and reduced the role and the representation of the parliament and the judiciary. He also manipulated the electoral system and the political process, by banning the opposition parties, rigging the elections and the referendums, and co-opting or coercing the politicians and the voters. He also ignored the democratic demands and the aspirations of the people, especially the students, the workers, the peasants, and the minorities, who rose up against his regime in 1968-69.

Constitutionally,  Ayub Khan’s regime violated the constitutional principles and norms of Pakistan, by overthrowing the 1956 constitution and imposing a new constitution in 1962, which was drafted by a handpicked commission without any public consultation or participation. The 1962 constitution was designed to suit the personal and political interests of Ayub Khan, and to legitimize his authoritarian rule. It abolished the federal system and the parliamentary system, and replaced them with a unitary system and a presidential system. It also curtailed the fundamental rights and the judicial review, and gave the president the power to amend the constitution, to dismiss the parliament, and to declare emergency and martial law. The 1962 constitution was widely criticized and rejected by the opposition parties, the civil society groups, and the constitutional experts, who demanded the restoration of the 1956 constitution or the drafting of a new constitution based on the principles of federalism, parliamentary democracy, and Islamic socialism.

Legally,  Ayub Khan’s regime undermined the legal system and the rule of law in Pakistan, by suspending the fundamental rights and the judicial review, and by interfering with the independence and the integrity of the judiciary. He appointed and removed the judges according to his own whims and preferences, and influenced the judicial decisions and verdicts through pressure and persuasion. He also enacted several laws and ordinances, such as the Public Safety Act, the Security of Pakistan Act, the Press and Publications Ordinance, and the Elective Bodies Disqualification Order, which curbed the civil liberties and the political rights of the citizens, and gave the executive and the security agencies the power to arrest, detain, prosecute, and punish the opponents and the critics of the regime. He also faced several legal challenges and controversies, such as the 1962 Rawalpindi conspiracy case, the 1965 presidential election petition, and the 1969 Tashkent Declaration case.

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Economically, Ayub Khan’s regime achieved remarkable economic growth and development in Pakistan, which was based on the policies of industrialization, privatization, and liberalization. He appointed a team of technocrats and economists, led by Dr. Mahbub ul Haq, who formulated and implemented the first and the second five-year plans, which focused on the sectors of agriculture, industry, infrastructure, and education. He also encouraged the foreign investment and the foreign aid, especially from the United States and the World Bank. He also introduced several economic reforms and programs, such as the Land Reforms Act, the Industrial Development Corporation, the Agricultural Development Corporation, and the Green Revolution. However, his economic policies also had some negative and unequal impacts, such as the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a few industrialists and landlords, known as the “22 families”, the widening of the gap between the rich and the poor, the regional disparity between the West and the East Pakistan, and the dependence on the external sources of finance and trade.

Developmentally,  Ayub Khan’s regime initiated and completed several developmental projects and schemes in Pakistan, which improved the quality and the quantity of the public goods and services, such as the roads, railways, bridges, dams, power plants, schools, hospitals, and universities. He also launched several mega projects, such as the Mangla Dam, the Tarbela Dam, the Karachi Nuclear Power Plant, the Karachi Steel Mill, the Lahore-Islamabad Motorway, and the Islamabad Capital Territory. He also collaborated and cooperated with other countries and organizations, such as India, China, Iran, Turkey, and the Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD), on various developmental issues and initiatives, such as the Indus Waters Treaty, the Karakoram Highway, the RCD Highway, and the RCD Railway. However, his developmental policies and projects also faced some problems and criticisms, such as the environmental and social costs, the corruption and mismanagement, the lack of sustainability and inclusivity, and the neglect and deprivation of some regions and sectors.

Ayub Khan’s regime federally abolished the federal system and provincial autonomy in Pakistan, replacing them with a unitary system and a central authority. He merged the four provinces of West Pakistan into one unit, and reduced the representation and the resources of East Pakistan. He also abolished the provincial assemblies and the provincial governments, and appointed the governors and the commissioners as his own representatives and agents. He also controlled and regulated the provincial and the local affairs, such as the law and order, the taxation, the education, and the health, through the central government and the basic democracies system. He also ignored and suppressed the federal and the provincial demands and the aspirations of the people, especially the Bengalis, the Balochis, the Sindhis, and the Pashtuns, who wanted more autonomy and rights for their regions and languages.

In terms of human rights, liberties and people participation in public life: Ayub Khan’s regime violated and restricted the human rights, the civil liberties, and the political rights of the people, and limited and manipulated the people participation in public life. He suspended the fundamental rights and the judicial review, and curbed the freedom of speech, press, assembly, association, and movement. He banned the opposition parties, the trade unions, the student unions, and the civil society groups, and arrested, detained, tortured, and killed the activists and the leaders. He also rigged the elections and the referendums, and co-opted or coerced the politicians. The position of human rights, liberties and public participation in public life in the Ayub era was very poor and dismal. Ayub Khan’s regime violated and restricted the human rights, the civil liberties, and the political rights of the people, and limited and manipulated the people participation in public life. He suspended the fundamental rights and the judicial review, and curbed the freedom of speech, press, assembly, association, and movement. He banned the opposition parties, the trade unions, the student unions, and the civil society groups, and arrested, detained, tortured, and killed the activists and the leaders. He also rigged the elections and the referendums, and co-opted or coerced the politicians and the voters. He also ignored and suppressed the democratic demands and the aspirations of the people, especially the students, the workers, the peasants, and the minorities, who rose up against his regime in 1968-69.

The reader can evaluate the General Ayub era in the present context. 

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